The DS Standard®

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The Need for the DS Standard®

Nearly all other musical instruments are manufactured in multiple sizes and with design differences that accommodate the uniqueness of a particular artist. The DS Standard® makes it possible for every pianist to choose which keyboard size is most appropriate for their particular hands and go from home to school or a teacher’s studio or a performance venue in the confidence that a keyboard bearing the DS® logo in their preferred size will be a perfect match.

“Our Music and Medicine department has conducted ground breaking research on the relationship of hand pain in small-handed pianists to the use of the standard size keyboard. And simultaneously, hard evidence that for smaller hands, the smaller piano keyboard dramatically REDUCES this pain.”

“It is incomprehensible to me that the major piano manufacturers have not seen the economic advantage to them of producing these smaller keyboards.”

“We pianists and teachers can certainly see the pedagogical advantages of training a young musician on an instrument that “fits” their body.

Dr. Pamela Mia Paul, Regents Professor of Piano, University of North Texas College of Music

Three Sizes for Adult Hands

Research has demonstrated that most adult pianists find today’s conventional keyboard – the DS6.5® – limits their ability to play and will find either the DS5.5® or DS6.0 a comfortable alternative, enabling them to play more complicated pieces with greater power, ease, and artistry.

The DS® logo provides a guarantee that the keyboard upon which it appears has been manufactured to the exact size specifications endorsed by the DS Standard Foundation.

Our Research

The opportunity to observe how hands of every size respond to a complete range of keyboard sizes led to the establishment of two additional piano keyboard standards.

From 1998 to 2005 Steinbuhler & Company (which in 2018 became the DS Standard Foundation) extended an invitation to pianists to come to Titusville, Pennsylvania and discover what size piano keyboard was most comfortable for them. Looking back at the activity that took place in our showroom, we now realize that it constituted vital research. As far as we know there has been no other comparable research in the 320 year history of the piano. The hands we observed were ones that had reached maturity, both male and female. The pianists who came were motivated by the desire to find the keyboard size that best suited them. The environment we provided was one of relaxed comfort. There were rooms where they could spend the night. In an uninterrupted afternoon or an entire weekend they worked with keyboards of every size. In addition to a Steinway B that was fitted with a complete range of keyboard sizes, we provided other pianos with conventional as well as smaller keyboards, which gave the pianists the freedom to experiment by moving from one to another. Also, as they desired, we would change the keyboard in the Steinway B to one that was slightly smaller or slightly larger. Our primary objective was to determine how many additional standards we should recommend and what sizes they should be.

Hosts Linda and David Steinbuhler

Keyboards for the Steinway B

Our Method

For the purposes of this discussion, we will refer to the size of the keyboard by its overall width and assume that it has 88 keys. The average modern conventional keyboard measures just over 48”. The first keyboards we built were 42” in width. By 1998 we also had keyboards that measured 39” and 45”.

With these three additional keyboard sizes to work with, we immediately learned that there was strong interest in more than just one additional size. The great relief experienced by the 42” keyboard was accompanied by a desire to go smaller. There were also those pianists who desired relief from the pain and strain they experienced playing the conventional piano, but found the 42” keyboard too small. It quickly became very clear that we needed at least two more keyboard sizes in addition to the conventional keyboard to satisfy the range of adult hands.

To determine the size of two additional standards, our next step was to do a thorough study at the small end of the range. For this we built 5 keyboards that measured 38, 39, 40, 41 and 42 inches. After establishing a practical small size, we would then add the appropriate in-between size.

The Results

When does the keyboard become too small? One pianist told me she wanted to “walk 10ths like Oscar Peterson” and to do this had calculated she would need a 38” keyboard. She flew all the way across the country to try our smallest keyboards only to discover that they were too cramped for her.

There was always the secondary consideration of the width of the sharps and the tradeoff that exists between the landing area on the sharp’s top and the space between them. After some experimentation, we found it prudent to keep close to the natural/sharp ratio found on conventional keyboards.

Measuring dozens of hands, comparing them to the full range of hand sizes found in mature pianists, listening to feedback, and seeing what size keyboards were purchased soon led us to an appropriate small size. For pianists whose hand spans are in the 7” to 8” range there was a desire to go smaller than the 42” keyboard as everyone wants to play 10ths comfortably. But once they went below a 40” keyboard the space between the sharps was becoming too confined for all but the smallest hands with thin fingers. It became clear that the 41” keyboard was the best overall choice even though 10ths were still out of reach for the smallest hands.

We were now ready to establish standards for a complete range of piano keyboard sizes. Because pianos and electronic keyboards will use differing numbers of keys, we decided to use the size of the octave to specify the size and nomenclature for the standards. Using the definition for the size of an octave as the distance from the center of one C key to the center of the next C key, which is the same as the distance from the left side of one C key to the left side of the next C key, we found that all piano keyboards in use today will hover around a 6.5 inch octave. We also found that the octave size of all conventional pianos will stay within a .04 inch range of that number. We therefore set the standard for the conventional keyboard octave at 6.50 inches with a tolerance of ± .04 inches.

To find the appropriate size for the middle keyboard it is clear that the ratio between the conventional keyboard and the middle keyboard needs to be the same as the ratio between the middle keyboard and the keyboard at the small end of the range. The use of the ratio 48/52 gave us very attractive properties. Most importantly, it gave us a keyboard whose overall width was slightly larger than 41 inches, and we made it the ratio between our standard keyboard sizes.

In addition to the three keyboards for adult pianists, we recently added more sizes down for small children. Experimenting with these sizes we are in the process of building a DS4.0™ keyboard for the Steinway B. Initial tests are showing we will be able to do it!

This set of standards taken together comprise the DS Standard®. To learn about the origin of this trademark see Our Story.

The DS Standard® The Donison-Steinbuhler Standard

Nomenclature	Description	Octave Size	Overall Width
DS6.5	Conventional Keyboard	6.500" 16.51cm	48.25”
DS6.0	Universal Keyboard	6.000" 15.24cm	44.53”
DS5.5®	7/8th Keyboard	5.538" 14.06cm	41.10”
			t
	4 Child Size Keyboards
DS5.1		5.112" 12.98cm	37.93”
DS4.7™	3/4th Keyboard	4.719" 11.98cm	35.02"
DS4.3™		4.356" 11.06cm	32.32"
DS4.0™	5/8th Keyboard	4.021" 10.21cm	29.83"

The hand span data in this chart was collected at the 2004 MTNA National Convention.

Discussion

It was interesting to observe that small changes in keyboard size did not make much difference to pianists once they had gotten to a size that was “in their zone.” For instance, when we built a keyboard with a 6.24 inch octave, a male with an average hand would notice little difference, but a small handed pianist would immediately notice relief. The exact sizes for the standards were not that critical.

Starting with Dr. Carol Leone’s research at Southern Methodist University in Dallas in the year 2000, on going university studies have never demonstrated a need for other sizes. Rhonda Boyle has compiled and analyzed a great amount of data concerning hands and piano playing which agree with our findings (see her PASK/Why we need narrower keys: the evidence) the main point being the 1 inch average difference between male and female hands.

Although we suggested a keyboard that was larger than the conventional keyboard, no pianist asked to try it. Given the fact that the large conventional size already exists, we feel confident we are offering nearly optimum sizes for every adult pianist. All of our observations relating hand span to keyboard size are summed up in the chart above. Notice that the keyboards are divided into overlapping zones, allowing for differences in finger thickness and personal preference.

Keyboards for young children, however, is another discussion.

DS® logo

For adults the sizes are designated:

DS6.5 – Conventional Keyboard
DS6.0 – Universal Keyboard
DS5.5®– 7/8^th Keyboard

Any piano certified by the DS® logo whether as a result of its original manufacturing, retrofitting or a rebuild, is guaranteed to conform to one of the corresponding DS Standard® sizes within a tolerance of ±.04 inches.

The DS Standard Ratio™

The nomenclature of our standards reflects the first two digits of the octave’s actual size. A very accurate measurement for a piano keyboard’s octave can be obtained by measuring the distance from the left side of the piano’s first C key to the left side of the eighth C key and dividing this number by 7.

The percentage jump from one keyboard size to the next keyboard size is always the same and is defined by the DS Standard Ratio™ which is equal to 48/52 ≈ .923; multiply any octave size in the DS Standard® by this ratio and the next lower size is the result.

Should the need ever arise for a keyboard that is larger than the conventional keyboard, the DS Standard Ratio™ provides an elegant solution for fitting the larger keyboard into the conventional piano. The keyboard manufacturer simply reduces the number of natural keys from 52 to 48 and expands the keyboard to fill the available space in the piano. The new larger keyboard that is the next higher size would lose three notes in both the far bass and treble ends of the piano.

Our Story

by David Steinbuhler

A Big Idea

A chance meeting in the summer of 1991 changed my life. I was visiting the Shaw Festival in Niagara-On-The-Lake and providentially stayed at the bed and breakfast run by Christopher Donison, the Festival’s music director. Christopher had a 7/8 keyboard installed in his concert grand piano! An octave on his keyboard was equal to a 7th on the conventional keyboard! While studying music at the University of Victoria, he realized that his small hand size was preventing him from mastering much of the great piano repertoire and had the keyboard built in the late 1970’s.

I play the piano a little, and the ease with which I adapted to his smaller keyboard amazed me. Christopher explained how a whole new unknown world opened before him when he first got the keyboard, and that this had inspired the concept of creating a second standard. “This”, I said, “is a big idea!”

I had been developing products in our family owned textile business in Titusville, PA and believed that this was an opportunity placed before me. I had computer programming experience, and the idea of building keyboards out of a computer data base intrigued me. Never mind that I knew nothing about the piano industry. I told Christopher I would try to build small keyboards, and he conceived the idea of calling the new proposed keyboard size the Donison-Steinbuhler Standard. The DS Standard® was born! To designate this standard on the keyboard itself, Christopher designed the DS logo which we would attach to the front of the first bass key.

“It IS Easy!”

In the freedom of having no preconceived ideas about how to build keyboards, I started tinkering more or less as a hobby. One thing led to another, and by the summer of 1994, on the loading dock of our textile plant, using a computer driven router, a coworker and I built our first keyboard, which we installed in my mother’s Steinway upright. Linda Gould, an acquaintance of Christopher’s, flew from Victoria, BC to try it. She had given up her dream of becoming a concert artist because of the pain she experienced when playing. I will never forget her exclaiming “It IS Easy!” after spending an emotional afternoon with the piano. This was my first experience watching a serious pianist discover the smaller keyboard.

On the spot Linda made the decision to buy a keyboard for her Yamaha grand. I turned my attention to grand keyboards and the nagging key strength issue. By January 1996, after building prototype keyboards for my Steinway B, I was ready, and we flew to Victoria to measure Linda’s piano. Two months later, relying heavily on Linda’s technician to mount the action stack and do the fitting, we sold our first DS Standard™ keyboard.

David Linda and Christopher on the occasion of measuring Linda's piano for her keyboard.

The Catch 22

We knew that before acceptance of the keyboard could become a reality, universities would have to work with and endorse them, so we got a grant and “seeded” five universities with keyboards. There followed a flurry of news media attention. National Canadian TV interviewed Christopher with his keyboard and newspapers, loving the story, ran feature articles. The lay person intuitively understands that pianists with different hand sizes need pianos with different keyboard sizes and wonders why it had never been done before. Piano teachers and serious students on the other hand were afraid to touch them. We got no immediate response from the media attention, and no one at the “seeded” universities worked with the keyboards. Since the keyboards did not exist elsewhere, everyone believed their careers would be hurt by working with them. Acceptance was probably going to take a generation.

What Size Keyboards?

The lack of response to the media attention was a blessing because much work needed to be done. I was convinced of the keyboard’s importance; but to make recommendations as to size, there needed to be a study which evaluated the complete range of possible standards. We began building keyboards of every size and one by one pianists started coming to Titusville to play them. They were young and old, male and female, pianists who struggled with pain and pianists who simply wanted to play a larger piano repertoire. It was fascinating to observe them experiment with these keyboards and this research gave me a solid basis for determining what standards to recommend. In addition to a 7/8 keyboard we also added a size in the middle dubbed “Universal” which we called a 15/16 keyboard. For a complete discussion see Our Research.

We used the nomenclature 7/8 and 15/16 to designate the two sizes, but over the years the use of these fractions proved to be confusing and in 2014 we changed the nomenclature to one that reflects the size of the keyboard’s octaves. Instead of DS-7/8 we now are using DS5.5® and instead of DS-15/16 we are using DS6.0.

Suitable for Professional Use?

To be taken seriously I also knew that our keyboards needed to be of the highest quality. Early on a keyboard we made for a Steinway C was rejected by a prestigious piano rebuilder in New York City who told us that it was “not suitable for professional use.” (In those days, we needed to work with rebuilders as our rough frame needed to be fitted to the piano and the action stack mounted.) Their complaint was the springy nature of the highly angled keys in the bass section.

This led to the development of techniques to measure key strength and the “brace” which proved to completely eliminate the problem. Attention to the engineering aspects of the keys has always been of great interest to me, as I needed to discover whether or not highly professional reduced size keyboards could be built at all.

Bob Fratus crafting keys in our early days on the loading dock of Horn Textile

First University Study

Through the inspiration of Dr. Carol Leone, Southern Methodist University became the first university to purchase and study an alternative size piano keyboard. In the fall of 2000 we fitted the Steinway B in her studio with a 7/8 (DS5.5®) keyboard. She and several of her students started working with and performing on it, enjoying remarkable results. By the end of the school year, Carol had personally committed herself to using the 7/8 (DS5.5®) keyboard, believing that its use would revolutionize traditional teaching of children and small-handed pianists and would offer relief to pianists with injuries related to long hours of playing the conventional keyboard. For a full discussion of her findings, please read her article Goldilocks Had a Choice [1] published in the American Music Teacher.

Dr. Carol Leone Chair of Piano Studies and Professor of Piano at Southern Methodist University with her DS5.5® keyboard

Interchangeable Keyboards

Carol Leone’s desire to demonstrate these findings at other universities inspired us to build a keyboard that had adjustable features which would allow it to be installed in the Steinway concert grand pianos of different universities. We wanted to see how practical and transportable such a keyboard might be. By the spring of 2002 the keyboard was ready, and Carol scheduled recital demonstrations at five universities. I took the keyboard to the universities in advance to see how well it would fit. We found that it could be adjusted and regulated to play quite well; and that spring the University of Oklahoma, Baylor, Rice, Texas Tech, and the University of Nebraska – Lincoln were witness to recitals given on a Steinway concert grand with a DS5.5® keyboard.

Although it has not proven to be practical for an artist to take her DS Keyboard with her to be installed in the pianos of different venues, the experience we gained developing the adjustable features was valuable. It gave us the ability to build a replacement keyboard that can easily be installed in a grand piano without changing anything on the piano. This means it is now easy for a university to acquire an alternative size keyboard for the piano on their concert stage that can be interchanged with the original conventional keyboard. Once a new keyboard has been installed, it can be exchanged back and forth with the conventional keyboard in just a matter of minutes. This has opened the way for universities to provide piano keyboards that best fit their students’ hands and to study all their practical ramifications.

Growing University Interest and Research

Southern Methodist University purchased a DS5.5® keyboard for their concert hall and two uprights with DS5.5® keyboards for practice rooms. Under the direction of Dr. Lora Deahl, Texas Tech University worked with three DS5.5® keyboards: one in Lora Deahl’s studio Steinway B, one for their concert hall and one in an upright in a practice room. Lora started her studies by measuring the preferences of pianists of different ages, genders, and hand sizes for the conventional versus the 7/8 keyboards. Students at both SMU and Texas Tech performed recitals on them, and the two universities collaborated with each other in joint recitals. Their studies demonstrated the ease and practicality of working with alternative keyboards.

SMU student Nicole Halton's recital

Dr. Pamela Mia Paul and Dr. Kris Chesky worked with DS6.0 keyboards at the University of North Texas. Kris, director of the Texas Center for Music and Medicine, initiated formal research to address the increasing evidence that a high percentage of pianists struggle with arm, wrist and hand pain and have associated medical problems. They endeavored to understand why these problems occur and whether the risk will be reduced with the use of alternative keyboards.

Using DS5.5® keyboards at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Dr. Brenda Wristen also initiated a formal study of the factors that cause injuries among pianists. She collaborated with Dr. Susan Hallbeck in the department of engineering to electronically measure the stress in the muscles of pianists as they play the different size keyboards. Results of their study showed a big difference in levels of fatigue.

Working with Children

Dr. Carol Leone again led the way as the first teacher to conduct studies with children. In January of 2005 she began teaching young Aaron Kurz who had an upright piano with a 7/8 keyboard on which to practice in his home. Carol wrote, “…I have performed a preliminary study with one student, ten year old Aaron Kurz, who after one year of study on the 7/8 piano keyboard, performed a Rachmaninov prelude at the national MTNA 2006 conference. His powerful performance of a piece previously reserved for large-handed pianists broke new ground and astounded those in attendance. One well-known American piano professor was brought to tears by sheer wonderment at a child possessing the ability to present this advanced repertoire by virtue of having a keyboard that suited a child-sized hand.”

Aaron has since grown, made the transition to the conventional keyboard, and has gone on to be a winner in two international piano competitions.

Aaron Kurz warming up on a DS5.5®

The National Conference on Keyboard Pedagogy 2007

Tradition and Transformation: Learning, Playing, and Teaching Outside the Box

The first day of the conference featured the use of the 7/8 DS5.5® keyboard in a concert by Dr. Carol Leone playing a Steinway concert grand that was fitted with the smaller keyboard. After the concert, the piano was on display in a separate room so that all in attendance could personally experience the keyboard.

Two informative videos about the 7/8 keyboard were produced by Mario Ajero.

Dr. Carol Leone playing the conventional keyboard and then immediately playing the same piece on the 7/8 keyboard. Switching keyboards is a skill she easily learned and is similar to playing the viola and then the violin.
Dr. Carol Leone demonstrating to the audience after her performance the shape of her hand playing chords on a conventional keyboard and then on the 7/8 keyboard.
A demonstration of the ease of removing the conventional keyboard from the Steinway concert grand and replacing it with the 7/8 keyboard.

Dr. Anita Renfroe from Millersville University playing the 7/8 keyboard for the first time with her comments.
Sarah Evans and Dr. Peter Davis from Bob Jones University share the results of their study which tested the ability of pianists to adapt to playing on a smaller keyboard. Pianists who practiced one hour a day for five days found significant improvement in accuracy in a short amount of time. An attitudinal survey revealed that pianists adapted more quickly than they had expected.

Development of our Technician’s Kit

Rhonda Boyle who lives in Melbourne on the other side of the world was determined to get a 7/8 keyboard and I needed a foolproof method for getting the measurements of her piano. So, I put together a set of tools with a booklet of instructions packaged in a handy caring case and my wife and I flew to Australia to have a very interesting vacation in late 2008.

Rhonda was bubbling with energy to promote alternative keyboards and I was trying to figure out how to provide them testing our new Technician’s Kit. Back home with the data form the kit entered into our computer we cut out Rhonda’s set of DS5.5® keys, built the action, sent it off, and waited to see if it would fit.

Rhonda’s technician Warwick Dalton wrote back saying, “The installation of Rhonda’s 7/8 action was pretty much flawless… four hours of regulation was all that it required to bring it to perfection, a lot less than some new pianos require. Rhonda is delighted! Look forward to the next installation!”

Rhonda has become a driving force with her PASK (Pianists for Alternatively Sized Keyboards) website.

We are refining our Technician’s Kits and will soon be able to send them to technicians around the world to get the measurements we need to build a DS Keyboard.

To read a piano technician’s guild news article about Rhonda’s keyboard installation see:

Warwick Dalton installing Rhonda Boyle's 7/8 DS5.5® keyboard

The Technician's Kit which will close up into a handy carrying case.

Another Powerful Demonstration

At the National Conference on Keyboard Pedagogy 2009, Dr. Kathleen Riley demonstrated her work with ProformaVision, a new product that monitors a pianist’s performance with video and muscle tension, giving real time visual feedback. Its use is helping teachers prove what works in an indisputable manner.

Juilliard Piano Department Chair Veda Kaplinsky stated, “Both Kathleen Riley’s research and ProformaVision are a tremendous help to our teaching profession. Finally we are able to see what is happening as our students play. It is irrefutable proof of what is correct in terms of piano technique.”

Former MTNA President Gail Berenson stated, “ProformaVision enables students and their teachers to finally see what is taking place physiologically as they play. They are able to make changes in their physical approach to the instrument (in order) to achieve greater efficiency and effortlessness in their playing.

Fitted with the ProformaVision system, Dr. Carol Leone is playing a 7/8 DS5.5® with doctors Kathleen Riley and Gail Berenson (left) looking on.

First Piano Manufacturer Installing Our Keyboards

The Walter Piano Company was the first manufacturer allowing us to sell their pianos worldwide that were built with our keyboards. Our customers select the model, style, and finish of the Walter upright they want, we supply the DS Keyboard size they want, and the Walter Piano Company builds the piano.

Walter Piano is a family owned company located in the USA that has built an impeccable reputation for the quality of their products. Their uprights are known for the richness of their tone and fullness of their bass. Their long keys are especially suited to accommodate the higher angles of our DS Keyboards. They pay close attention to every aspect of fine instrument building, and we are pleased to be working with them.

We have shipped Walter Studio Upright pianos to Australia, Japan, Asia, Europe; all around the world.

How Far We Have Come

Christopher Donison has written, “There are two great secrets in the world of piano playing. The first is how much easier the instrument is to play with larger hands and the second is how impossible it can be with smaller hands..”[2]

Today, for the first time in the history of the piano, there is a growing list of universities that own and are studying alternative size keyboards. Also there is a growing list of pianists who are absolutely thrilled to be playing a keyboard that has literally change their lives. All the time we get feedback such as; “…musically speaking, the DS5.5 has been the greatest spiritual experience of my life. All I want to do is play on it for the rest of my life” or “It’s fabulous.” These are two comments we got just this week as I write. It is so rewarding to be able to help.

Taken as a whole, great evidence is accumulating that demonstrates pianists in general are locked in a one-size-fits-all world of profound discrimination. Students who study piano are mostly female, and yet universities provide only pianos with large size keyboards. When we step back to reflect on this, is it not astounding to realize that universities around the world do not provide their students with instruments that are appropriate to the size of their hands? Today, slowly, they are becoming aware of the two great secrets Christopher Donison discovered when he first got his 7/8 keyboard.

Where We Are Going

We now know that the smaller keyboards work and grand pianos are easy to retrofit. But, this world of the piano is tied to tradition and will not change easily. How will we ever overcome this impasse? One of the main drivers probably will be the growing awareness that alternative keyboards greatly eliminate piano-related pain. I do not think it is too strong a statement to say that it is really a question of human rights.

Interestingly, many of the inquires we receive are requests for smaller electronic keyboards. I know that as awareness and acceptance grows one day an electronic keyboard manufacturer will provide them. The ability to take your 7/8 keyboard with you when you travel would be liberating!

The Chinese could be a huge factor. A high percentage of the students who study piano are of Chinese ethnicity, and their hand spans measure at the small end of the spectrum. It would seem to be natural for their piano industry to lead the way. In 2019 we started to work with Hailun USA, a Chinese based piano company that is enthusiastically promoting DS Standard keyboards.

For an industry that has generally been in decline for decades, promotion of the keyboards could be a most welcome boon.

My grandson Alex Steinbuhler and April Larson are committed to keeping our manufacturing operation going.

April regulating an action.

Alex making parts for a frame.

Why We Persist in Our Efforts

Dr. Carol Leone spoke for all of us who are working on this project with a story: Yesterday I gave an audition lesson to an incoming graduate student. She played a challenging Romantic work with a lot of struggle, even though she intentionally left out many notes to accommodate her small hands. I then found out that she is an injured pianist, with chronic carpal tunnel and also nerve damage in her right arm. Then she told me that she came to SMU specifically to study on the 7/8 keyboard. So, over to the 7/8 Steinway we went and she proceeded to play passages from her piece perfectly with all of the notes! She looked at me incredulously and burst into tears, apologizing over how emotional she felt and exclaiming how she has been trying for years to “discipline myself to stay away from Romantic repertoire.”

More than three decades have passed since I first met Christopher Donison with his vision of a second keyboard standard. Giving thanks to the Lord for the many blessings and opportunities we have enjoyed, I patiently ask, “What next?” The Lord willing, I’m available.

It is clear that piano manufacturers must be involved. In order to expedite that, the DS Standard Foundation has relinquished the intellectual property rights it has developed through its patents at the margins of keyboard manufacture (specifically its patent for the “brace” which ensure adequate key strength in the 7/8 (DS5.5®) and smaller sizes and for the use of key-leveling plates).

Pressure is growing beneath the surface, and, although it may take decades, at some point the use of alternative keyboards will become commonplace. In the meantime building them has become routine for us as we remain committed to this exciting adventure, believing that we are witnessing the beginnings of an ergonomic revolution.